The instruments employed herein are the same because the construct under study can be assumed to operate similarly, and therefore, it can be tapped with the same attitude and behavior measures in every culture. A sophisticated extension of the most different and most similar logic was developed by Charles Ragin (1987, 2008). A common application of this technique is found in political science, where it is used, for example, to compare party manifestos and investigate which parties take similar stances on certain issues (see, for example, Pennings, Keman, & Kleinnijenhuis, 2006). In those instances, techniques such as multidimensional scaling, correspondence analysis, or cluster analysis may be warranted. Quantitative Methodology; Comparative research can take many forms. If preliminary analyses based on literature research, expert testimony, pretests and triangulation of alternative methods reveal that different indicators are necessary to capture the same underlying meaning of the concept, researchers can still undertake their study by following an emic approach. Types of research methods can be broadly divided into two quantitative and qualitative categories.Quantitative research “describes, infers, and resolves problems using numbers. VARIOUS TYPES OF RESEARCHES VAISALI K B070225AR 2. A fourth innovation, which was mentioned previously, is the adoption of a multilevel approach in comparative communication research where the national level is merely one among many levels. Implicit comparisons need to fulfill several requirements. Learn more. Media systems are not empty containers, and journalists and news organizations are not passive receivers of outside stimuli. In this sense, it may no longer suffice to compare one nation's journalists with another national sample. The research is based on the assumption that different parameters of political and media systems differentially promote or constrain communication roles and behaviors of organizations and actors within those systems. Based on generalizations from the initial study, scholars can make claims about other countries not actually studied or about future outcomes. An example would be to investigate transnational broadcasters, such as Al Jazeera or the BBC World Service, transnational Internet platforms, such as Facebook or YouTube, and transnational entertainment formats, such as Big Brother, Who Wants to Be a Millionaire, or Disney productions. The fourth issue is that of unit‐level heteroscedasticity, which suggests that the model explains variance for one unit better than it does for the other. Examples of de‐territorialized communities include international movements of online activism, audiences of global crisis events and international entertainment programs, fans of international celebrities, followers of international religious movements, and satellite television viewerships of ethnic diasporas dispersed over many countries. The two main choices within this model are comparing two stages in time (either snapshots or time-series), or just comparing the same thing over time, to see if a policy's effects differ over a stretch of time.[3]. (KW, 02-2020) The comparison of contexts serves as a robustness check to determine whether a relationship holds in various situations. Esser and Pfetsch concluded some time ago that “[i]n times of growing globalization and supranational integration … it is becoming increasingly difficult to treat societies and cultures as isolated units” (2004, p. 401). Confirmed hypotheses are extremely valuable, as they offer the opportunity for prediction. Hantrais (1999, pp. Otherwise, it is more appropriate either to work with dummies for the higher level units (see previous section) and reason theoretically about different relations across countries, or to use standard errors clustered at the higher level. On Evaluating Curricular Effectiveness: Judging the Quality of K-12 Mathematics Evaluations. Implicit comparisons use existing typologies as a yardstick to interpret and contextualize the single case at hand. Emphasis is placed on the collection of numerical data, the summary of those data and the drawing of inferences from the data”.Qualitative research, on the other hand, is based on words, feelings, emotions, sounds and other non-numerical and unquantifiable elements. If this dependency is high, it might be a sign of non‐stationarity, thus indicating that the mean of the dependent variable is not stable over time. Health Monitor Journal of the Iranian Institute for Health Sciences Research. In a review, specifically of comparative political communication research, Pippa Norris (2009) identifies several reasons for this, including shortage of comparative frameworks due to an overly strong focus on the United States, a lack of standardized measurement instruments, and the limited availability of large archival datasets. The main reason being that there is no agreement on the kind of methodology to be followed, nor even on the methodologies that could be followed. Enter your email address below and we will send you your username, If the address matches an existing account you will receive an email with instructions to retrieve your username, I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of Use, Modernity at large: Cultural dimensions of globalization, What to do (and not to do) with time‐series‐cross‐section data in comparative politics, Hallin and Mancini (2004) revisited: Four empirical types of Western media systems, Measurement invariance in comparative Internet use research, Handbook of comparative communication research, Measurement equivalence in cross‐national research, Comparative media analysis: Why some fuzzy thinking might help. His approach, Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA), is a configurational or holistic comparative method which considers each case (system, culture) as a complex entity, as a “whole,” which needs to be studied in a case‐sensitive way. Research Methods Vs. Research Design Types of Research Methods George J. Mouly has classified research method into three basic types: Descriptive or Survey Method Historical Method, and Experimental Method Political affairs coverage in U.S., British, German, Swiss, French and Italian newspapers, Case studies and theory development in the social sciences, Comparing media systems: Three models of media and politics, Modeling perceived influences on journalism: Evidence from a cross‐national survey of journalists, Explaining journalists' trust in public institutions across 20 countries: Media freedom, corruption and ownership matter most, Cross contextualization in cross‐national comparative research, Statistical methods for communication science, Emerging transnational news spheres in global crisis reporting: A research agenda, Political communication across the world: Methodological issues involved in international comparisons, Sourcebook for political communication research: Methods, measures, and analytical techniques. Only objects that meet the same function (or role) may be meaningfully compared with each other. It is exactly these relationships, and how they potentially differ across countries, that lead scholars conducting comparative research to rely on multilevel modeling. 4 (November): 501–506. Like cases are treated alike, and different cases are treated differently; the extent of difference determines how differently cases are to be treated. Comparative historical research is a method of social science that examines historical events in order to create explanations that are valid beyond a particular time and place, either by direct comparison to other historical events, theory building, or reference to the present day. In these instances, it makes sense to rely on multilevel modeling, though alternative strategies can also be considered when the number of higher level units is limited (e.g., clustered standard errors). Comparative analysis is an old mode of research, widely used within many, if not all, fields of scientific inquiry. More specifically, the more positive the coverage, the stronger the effect of conflict framing. Many scholars are not only unaware of the many alternative comparative frameworks to Hallin and Mancini (see later), but they are also unfamiliar with the many biases involved with uninformed case selection. This applies to both computer‐assisted and human coding. For this reason, Kohn (1989) created, with great vision, another model for international comparison, which he called the transnational model, a model that treats countries as loci of border‐transgressing trends. In an ideal setting, coder training is intense and repeated until intercoder reliability is sufficiently satisfactory. Research is defined as, a careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or a problem using scientific methods. If you do not receive an email within 10 minutes, your email address may not be registered, … Both types are considered as important for comparative research. This interpreta-tion is certainly valid. 56–57). Esser (2008) applies this technique and identifies, based on a comparative content analysis of television election news, three different political news cultures across five Western countries. This is also the case in the study by Strömbäck and Van Aelst. It is important to understand that QCA uses a more complex understanding of causality than the most different and most similar logic. Esser and Hanitzsch (2012b), in their Handbook of Comparative Communication Research, introduce several suitable frameworks, such as the political communication system, media system, media market, media audience, media culture, journalism culture, election communication system, and news‐making system, among others. Schuck et al. Formally speaking, most similar systems designs “manipulate” the independent variable by purposefully selecting cases for the analysis that in many ways are very similar (e.g., Scandinavian media systems) but differ in the one critical variable (e.g., granting press subsidies or not). Alternatively, one can pool the data and use dummy variables for the countries and interaction terms between the independent variable of interest and the dummy variables. These include descriptive, basic explanatory, comparison of relation, and comparative explanatory questions. His research focuses on cross‐national studies of news journalism and political communication. For this reason, comparativists may wish to update their research strategies to account for the challenges of transnationalization. are regarded as cases with theoretically relevant attributes. Similarly, when drawing samples for cross‐national surveys, external statistical data on the structure of a country's population must be considered. This fuzzy‐set logic (fsQCA) has, for example, been applied by Downey and Stanyer (2010) in their investigation of the presence of personalization of political communication in 20 countries. toavoidbiasesinmeasurement,instruments,andsampling.Weintroduceatypology. Non-conventional renewable energy: comparative analysis of the prospects for the development of energy-economic complex of a state. This recognition of the (causal) significance of contextual conditions is why comparative research is so exceptionally valuable. Similarly, questioning of the Greek laws and institutions and its related values and practices (e.g. You'll learn howto use comparative methods for constructive explanation and theory building and applyit to real-world politics. Note that the (survey) instruments need not be 100% identical but can still be adapted to account for relevant variations. Those interested in more advanced techniques for testing and for optimizing equivalence, such as congruence coefficient analysis, multigroup confirmatory factor analysis or latent class analysis, may refer to the work of Wirth and Kolb (2012). Their analysis suggests that there are two paths to personalization of political communication. But even in this project, which was designed with a comparative goal from the outset, meaningful conclusions can only be drawn after careful tests of measurement invariance (see Büchi, 2016). Information technology has enabled greater production of quantitative data for comparison, and international communications technology has facilitated this information to be easily spread. 100–101) makes an important point by arguing, “any similarities or differences revealed by a cross‐national study may be no more than an artifact of the choice of countries.” The rationale for the case selection must be linked to a conceptual framework that justifies all design decisions made by the comparativist. Here, the longitudinal aspect might become more important compared to the cross‐sectional aspect. Thus, the question is: how does comparative communication research proceed in practice? COMPARATIVE RESEARCH Types of Comparative Research There are several methods of doing comparative analysis and Tilly (1984) distinguishes four types of comparative analysis namely: individualizing, universalizing KONTEYNER TERMİNAL EKİPMANLARI ARASINDA OPERASYONEL VERİMLİLİĞE GÖRE LİMAN EKİPMAN SEÇİMİ: KARŞILAŞTIRMALI BİR SİMULASYON ANALİZİ. SEE ALSO: CC BY is the correct license for this work. The final type of question is labeled comparative explanatory. These elements will be further discussed in the sections that follow. Language equivalence and measurement reliability are of paramount importance. Reliability; The language issue has particular implications for calculating reliability in cross‐national content analyses. In some instances, especially those with a mid‐range number of cases, one might be interested in a more systematic grouping of cases, for example, to identify two or more clusters of countries that are highly similar. Regression Analysis, Linear; “With this logic,” as Comstock (2012) explains, “the encompassing method selects cases on the basis of their representativeness of common positions in the overall system” (p. 376). Norris and Inglehart (2009) produced a ranking that vividly illustrates the extent to which the world's countries have become cosmopolitan, that is, absorbent of transborder influences. Please check your email for instructions on resetting your password. Two key factors are space and time. For example, Vliegenthart et al. His books include Comparing Political Communication (2004, with B. Pfetsch), Handbook of Comparative Communication Research (2012, with T. Hanitzsch), and Comparing Political Journalism (2016, with de Vreese and Hopmann). Applying fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis to the personalization of mediated political communication, Dimensions of political news cultures: Sound bite and image bite news in France, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States, On the why and how of comparative inquiry in communication studies, Meeting the challenges of global communication and political integration: The significance of comparative research in a changing world, Comparing political communication. This logic is inherent in all most similar systems designs. It is ironic, however, that just at the point when the communication discipline has gained a firmer grip on methodological approaches, useful frameworks and role‐model studies (see Esser & Hanitzsch, 2012b), the processes of transnationalization are apparently undermining the comparative rationale. Comparative research in communication and media studies is conventionally understood as the contrast among different macro‐level units, such as world regions, countries, sub‐national regions, social milieus, language areas and cultural thickenings, at one point or more points in time. One way for cross‐cultural content analysis to achieve these standards is to concentrate the coding, to as great a degree as possible, in one professionally managed setting and to monitor all satellite/distance coders via efficient means of communication from the testing center. What distinguishes comparative research from simple border‐transgressing kinds of (international/transnational) research is that comparativists carefully define the boundaries of their cases. With the medical students gathered around, the physicians conducting the autopsy observed that the patient's lungs were speckled with large dark masses of cells that had caused extensi… More specifically, comparative analysis enhances the understanding of one's own society by placing its familiar structures and routines against those of other systems (understanding); comparison heightens our awareness of other systems, cultures, and patterns of thinking and acting, thereby casting a fresh light on our own political communication arrangements and enabling us to contrast them critically with those prevalent in other countries (awareness); comparison allows for the testing of theories across diverse settings and for the evaluating of the scope and significance of certain phenomena, thereby contributing to the development of universally applicable theory (generalization); comparison prevents scholars from over‐generalizing based on their own, often idiosyncratic, experiences and challenges claims to ethnocentrism or naïve universalism (relativization); and comparison provides access to a wide range of alternative options and problem solutions that can facilitate or reveal a way out of similar dilemmas at home (alternatives). Moreover, coders, in an optimal situation, are closely supervised and constantly retested to assess their work quality throughout the term of the project. This technique often utilizes multiple disciplines in one study. In such instances, multivariate analyses, such as regression analysis, can be applied. An application of the technique can be found in a comparative survey of journalists by Hanitzsch and colleagues (2010), in which they compare similarities in perceived influences on journalists across 17 countries. The five types which are main are focus groups, content analysis, ethnographic research, interviews etc. The first option is to determine the extent to which they have actually achieved construct equivalence after the fact, primarily by means of statistical analysis. Types of Research 1. Thus, the manners in which the various media systems respond are likely to demonstrate valuable information about the specific conditions of the media system in question. Focusing on the foundations and basic logic of comparative research and potential research goals, we pay ample attention to case selection, both in small‐ and large‐N studies, and to the fundamental choice between most similar and most different systems designs. Comparative research methodology is carried out by using a variety of tools, including surveys, personal observation and analysis of national data. The comparative communication scholar, however, still faces a substantial number of challenges. That is, if the value items yield similar patterns of correlations across all countries under study, external construct equivalence is assumed to be ensured (Wirth & Kolb, 2012). Today, “the” standard form of comparative analysis is usually equated with research methods based on John Stuart Mill's (1843) Methods of Agreement and Difference and Adam Przeworski and Henry Teune's (1970) Most Different and Most Similar Systems Designs. Number of times cited according to CrossRef: Exploring the Effects of Building Information Modeling on Projects: Longitudinal Social Network Analysis. Different methods exist in comparative legal research despite the effort of the discipline to combine them. Thus, the comparative research question is, “How are transnational or transcultural phenomena revealed in different countries?” (Hasebrink, 2012, p. 386). These methods are very important in business research since they [5] Here, Esping-Andersen is using comparative research: he takes many western countries and compares their level of decommodification, then develops a theory of the divergence based on his findings. Theories, cases, and challenges, Competing models of journalism? In this paper, we are going to take a closer look at two different forms of research Comparative analysis is about control (Sartori, 1994). 3 Moreover, di erent methods m ay be combined, as they a re complemen- They rely on a set of regression analyses, one for each single country. While equivalence relies on the cultural expertise of collaborators and their analytical abilities to develop a unified theoretical framework, methodological and administrative equivalence largely entails managerial capacities. In comparable cases, even additional levels can be considered such as journalists nested in organizations nested in countries (Hanitzsch & Berganza, 2012). However, as these authors also note, though the techniques just mentioned work well for multi‐country surveys, they are less efficient for comparative content analysis. In a follow‐up correspondence analysis of six national press systems over a 40‐year time span, he finds similar political news cultures (Esser & Umbricht, 2013). of different types of research questions that can be addressed with comparative. Let us assume that one is interested in the relationship between press subsidies (i.e., state aid available to newspapers in some media systems but not in others) and press diversity (measured by the number of newspapers in the market): to examine whether press subsidies generally promote press diversity or not requires a comparative analysis. Research Methodology Vs. Research Methods A well-defined research methodology helps you conduct your research in the right direction, validates the results of your research, and makes sure that the study you are conducting answers the set research questions. These methods include (but are not limited to) participant observation, cross-cultural comparison, survey research, interviews and historical analysis. Whereas the so-called functionalists only look at the written law, the “law as culture”-approach demands for taking into consideration also the surrounding factors and conditions such as religion, society or economic situation. This book contributes new … For all five research goals, the selection of which cases are included in the comparison is crucial. As Rössler (2012) notes, any selection based on these criteria must also be discussed with reference to proportionality if the media markets or relevant market sectors differ in size. Frequently, comparative methods are portrayed as a bridge between qualitative, case-oriented research and quantitative, variable-oriented research. Cross‐national research as an analytic strategy, The international encyclopedia of communication research methods, Issues and methods in comparative politics, Some caveats about comparative research in media studies, The SAGE handbook of political communication. Many examples suggest that in a globalized world, transnational flows of communication intersect in new spaces that do not necessarily correspond with national boundaries. Comparative research is a research methodology in the social sciences that aims to make comparisons across different countries or cultures. Comparative research, simply put, is the act of comparing two or more things with a view to discovering something about one or all of the things being compared. Research involves inductive and deductive methods.Read more about research methods, types Such quasi‐experimental research designs often forbid a strongly causal attribution of explanatory factors for the determined variance of the dependent variable. Furthermore, rounded and detailed descriptions provide knowledge and initial hunches about interesting topics and about factors that may be important for explaining similarities and differences. If one is able to sufficiently distinguish two carry the research conclusions will not be very helpful. Both characteristics prevent higher‐level statistics from being used effectively for testing construct equivalence in cross‐national content analyses. Hospital accreditation method: A comparative study. In general, however, the only thing that is certain in comparative research issues is the existence of differences to be analysed. First, comparativists must realize that explanatory variables for certain communication outcomes will no longer be derived from domestic contexts alone, but will also come from foreign models. Again, this input includes the scores of a mid‐range number of cases according to a predefined set of variables. These new spaces are de‐territorialized, that is, they are no longer confined to territorial borders and have been variously called translocal mediascapes (Appadurai, 1996), “emerging transnational mediated spheres” (Hellman & Riegert, 2012), “new forms of public connectivity” (Voltmer, 2012) or, more briefly, “media cultures” (Couldry & Hepp, 2012). Instead, other forms of belonging come to the forefront. Working off-campus? In other words, it is part of the emergence of episteme and philo-sophia, as a love for knowledge that is independent from material benefits. It is crucial to understand this basic logic of comparative research. In this study and in similar studies, the analyses are descriptive in nature, and as such, they involve comparisons regarding the presence of issue framing and game framing in various newspapers. A workable alternative is the project language approach where all researchers and coders agree upon one common lingua franca—usually English—for instruments, training, and reliability testing. Reese (2001) argues, for instance, that the meaning of journalistic professionalism varies across countries depending on factors of influence on several layers of analysis. The distinct feature of primary research is that the researcher focuses on collecting data directly rather than depending on data collected from previously done research. Textbooks on this form of study were beginning to appear by the 1880s, but its rise to extreme popularity began after World War II. In line with how a lot of theorizing has gone in the last century, comparative research does not tend to investigate "grand theories," such as Marxism. Those tests include differential item functioning techniques and confirmatory factor analysis (Vliegenthart, 2012; Wirth & Kolb, 2012). Moutsios, S. (2018) Society and Education: An Outline of Comparison. When it comes to subject matter of comparative inquiries, many contend there is none unique to it. Thus different causal paths—each path being relevant, in a distinct way—may lead to the same outcome. One such challenge is the rigid application of comparative logics, which is in line with work on most similar and most different systems designs as found in political science. An issue for many of the studies, however, is the limited number of cases. As a consequence, two sub‐approaches are identified. To conduct quantitative research, methods like online survey, questionnaires, sampling methods etc. Moreover, using complaints about the alleged immaturity of the field as an excuse for delivering yet more immature studies will only serve to negatively affect the advancement of research in the field. An example is Hallin and Mancini (2004), who first clarified the concepts mass press, political parallelism, professionalization, and state intervention and then used these concepts as dimensions to classify media systems into three prototypical models: polarized pluralist, democratic corporatist, and liberal. The second type of research question addressed in comparative research is a basic explanatory one. Learn about our remote access options. It is a concept that requires the researcher to explicitly detail the relationship of an individual system to a larger, more potent connecting structure, such as its membership to a European film industry, a shared and border‐transgressing journalism culture, an Asian media market, and so on, that affects the behaviors of its parts. Different contextual conditions (=factors of influence) are used to explain different outcomes regarding the object under investigation (=embedded in these contexts and hence affected by them), while similar contextual conditions are used to explain similar outcomes. [4] A good example of this is the common research program that looks for differences between two or more social systems, then looks at these differences in relation to some other variable coexisting in those societies to see if it is related. [4] Most authors are more conservative in their estimate of how long comparative research has been with us. To understand the relationship between divergent contextual influences and the respective implications for the object of investigation, scholars identify and operationalize key explanatory and outcome variables, which can be arranged in various forms to pose different kinds of explanatory research questions (see later). Both strategies have many parallels and can be pulled together under the rubrics of Most Similar Systems – Different Outcomes and Most Different Systems – Similar Outcomes. Use the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. For those studies where scholars wish to update their research existing typologies as a yardstick to interpret and the. Contextual conditions for a theoretically meaningful differentiation between systems or cultures serve as dimensions to be considered and designs... On their level of decommodification presenting a justification for case selection is important... And hybrid media formats methodology in the sections that follow your password the boundaries of their cases types of comparative research methods is and. And effects of building information modeling on Projects: longitudinal social Network analysis sample. 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That those developments play out differently in different countries or cultures serve as dimensions to construct dimensions researcher anticipates dimensions... Be adapted to account for relevant variations Judging the Quality of the second challenge to. Knowledge in the comparison of contexts serves as a research methodology that makes comparisons across different countries TERMİNAL ARASINDA! Random effects wherein relationships across variables measured at the lower level on public opinion, are to! Is available in Hayes ( 2005 ) series analysis stronger the effect of conflict of?! Is so types of comparative research methods valuable for prediction, can be used to construct dimensions original version to the! Within many, if not all, fields of scientific inquiry methodology peculiar to comparative research.... Method, the following research strategies are available ones in the comparison is crucial post. Certain in comparative research, samples, and planning of causality than most... 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